Most of us are limited in our knowledge and understanding of the human race, racial groups and types, and geographic migration patters. We know only what we are taught and what we see with our own eyes. Thus labels are easy to apply while research and study of the area takes time and trouble.

Europe is an excellent study in ethnic, tribal, and racial mixing. Modern European states are a result of this mixing resulting from population migration patterns, conquest, and wars. And Spain in particular, is an excellent case study.

Thus the question, what is a modern day Spaniard?

Iberians - The first people to appear in the Iberian Peninsula were called Iberians. These Iberians are accepted by historians as the native people (at a given point in time) of Spain. Originally they came from the south of Africa (Libya). These had a tribal organizational structure and were therefore split up into various tribal groups.

The Iberians had strong contact with the classical world. Both the Greeks and Phoenicians traded with them and eventually established settlements in Spain. In addition to trading with the classical world, the Iberians provided mercenaries to various countries around the Mediterranean by the fifth century BC.

Celts - Later, the Celts arrived in Spain. They were a typically Aryan people. These moved into Spain during the eighth to sixth century's BC. The Celts blended in with the native Iberians to produce the Celtiberians. With the merging of two groups there arose a new race. These then, divided into several tribes Cantabrians, Asturians, and Lusitanians giving their names to their respective homelands. These were Celtic and Proto-Celtic tribes living in the remote Spanish northern mountain areas.

Today, the word Celtic usually denotes people who are descended from one of seven Celtic "fringe" provinces in Western Europe. These principal Celtic countries and regions of today are: Ireland; Scotland; Wales; Corwall; Isle of Man; Brittany, France; and Galicia, Spain.

The Celtic peoples, whose oldest remnants of their culture can be found close to eastern France, Southern Germany and Belgium, and northern Switzerland and Austria once spread from Galatia, Turkey to Celtiberia, Spain and Ireland in the first century BC.

Many descendants of immigrants to North America, South America, Australia, and New Zealand can trace their ancestry from the Celts.

Fortunately, the Celtic culture was situated on the borders of western civilization instead of in the center where major changes took place. As a result, Celtic civilization offers a window into a world that existed before many of the conventions were brought about in Western society. It has been compared in this respect to the Hindu culture of India, the other "fringe" culture of the Arrian expansion in Europe. There are many similarities in their culture and their beliefs which span back to the formative years of Western civilization.

Celt, also spelled KELT, Latin CELTA, plural Celtae, is a member of an early Indo-European people. These peoples spread over much of Europe from the 2nd millennium BC to the 1st century BC. Their tribes and groups eventually ranged from the British Isles and northern Spain to as far east as Transylvania, the Black Sea coasts, and Galatia in Anatolia (Turkey).

In part, they were absorbed into the Roman Empire as Britons, Gauls, Boii, Galatians, and Celtiberians. Linguistically they survive in the modern Celtic speakers of Ireland, Highland Scotland, the Isle of Man, Wales, and Brittany.

Phoenicians - The next to arrive were the Phoenicians. They were attracted by mining wealth of the Iberian Peninsula. They founded a number of trading posts along the Spanish coast, the most important being that of Cadiz.

They came from the Eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea, modern day Lebanon. Their land was arid and inhospitable for farming. So they turned to the sea for food and eventually commerce. They became greatest travelers and traders of their time. The Phoenicians invented the alphabet, and taught several cultures their advanced system of writing.

They extended their influence across North Africa and settled Carthage in the modern nation of Tunisia. A trading post, the word Carthage means "new city." They chose it because of its location. Located in the center of North Africa, it was a short distance from Sicily and the Italian Peninsula.

When the Assyrians and the Persians conquered the original homeland of the Phoenicians, Carthage became an independent state.

Greeks - After this came Greek settlers, who founded several towns, including Rosas, Ampurias and Sagunto.

Carthaginians - The Phoenicians, in their struggle against the Greeks, called on the Carthaginians, who, under the orders of Hamilcar Barca, took possession of most of Spain. It was at this time that Rome raised a border dispute in defense of the areas of Greek influence. This began in the Peninsula the Second Punic War, which decided the fate of the world at that time. After Carthaginians had lost the first Punic war they were looking for a place to expand and Spain is where they chose.

Roman - Rome inevitably followed. The Romans conquered Hispania (Spain) in the 1st and 2nd centuries BC. Historically, it took the Romans 200 years to conquer all of Spain. But they were able to more quickly drive their foes, the Carthaginians, off the continent.

Carthage fought and lost three brutal wars that eventually destroyed the city against a rival city in Rome, Italy. The wars were known as the Punic Wars because Puncia was the Roman name for Carthage. The Roman navy surprised the sea trading people in the first war in 238BC.

The second Punic war started when the Carthaginians attacked a Greek city that the Romans claimed was part of their territory in Spain. Rome and Carthage fought each other in Spain with Spaniards providing troops to both sides. The Spanish provided Hannibal with many of his best troops.

The Carthaginians acquired a new base in Spain from which a great military leader named Hannibal led a team of elephants across southern France and into Italy.

Hannibal won some early victories. However, his forces were outnumbered. Rome eventually won that brutal war which lasted almost fifteen years until 204BC. Carthage lost all political and military power by the end of the second Punic War.

A half-century later, the Romans destroy the city. After a siege in 146 BC, the Romans went from house to house slaughtering the Carthaginians. The few survivors were sold into slavery. The city and harbor were destroyed. And in an act of vengence the Romans poured salt over the land to ensure its barrenness.

After the Roman victory, Publius Cornelius Scipio, Africanus, began the conquest of Spain. The Romans then took over the Carthaginian territories in Hispania and over the next couple of centuries expanded to conquer the rest of the peninsular. The last part of Spain to be absorbed was the north west corner in 19 BC.

Hispania or Spain remained under Roman rule for six centuries. During this time the Peninsula was completely subdued and Romanized. Roman though and culture so dominated Hispania that it produced writers of the stature of Seneca and Lucan. And also such eminent emperors as Trajan and Hadrian.

Rome left in Spain four powerful social elements the Latin language, Roman law, the municipality, and the Christian religion.

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Suevi, Vandals and Alans entered Spain, but were defeated by the Visigoths. These virtually occupied the whole of the Peninsula by the end of the 6th century.

They were one of the two principal branches of the Goths. Until 375 their history was combined with that of the Ostrogoths. Ulfilas (Wulfila) labored among the Visigoths, translated the Bible into their language, and preached Arianism with great success until Prince Athanaric obliged him to withdraw (348).

At the invasion of the Huns some Visigoths fled with Athanaric into the mountains of Transylvania. The majority turned to the Roman Emperor Valens for help asking to be taken into the Roman Empire. In 376, a force of 200,000 Visigoths crossed the Danube. But oppression by the governors led them to revolt. They crossed the country plundering as they went. Finally, they defeated and killed Valens in 378, near Adrianople.

His successor, Theodosius, made peace with the Visigoths in 382. Theodosius' policy was to unite the Visigoths with the empire by means of national commanders appointed by the emperor. Wanting to maintain peace, he endeavored to unite the Arians with those who held the Nicene faith.

After the death of Theodosius (395) the Visigoths elected Alaric of the Baltha family as their king. Alaric then sought to establish a Germanic kingdom on Roman soil. It was Alaric who brought his people into connection with Roman civilization.

In 396 he invaded the Balkan Peninsula as far as the Peloponnesus and was given the Province of Illyria.

He then began his war against the Western Roman Empire. In 401, he entered Italy. Alaric was victorious at Aquileia. But after the battle of Pollentia (403) Alaric was forced to retreat. In 408, he demanded the cession of Noricum, Illyria Pannonia, and Venetia. In 410, he plundered Rome, and soon after died in southern Italy.

His successor, Athaulf, (410-415) led the Visigoths into Gaul, where the following King Wallia (415-419) gained the land between the Garonne and the Loire.

Under the succeeding rulers the Visigoth kingdom was enlarged. During the reign of Euric (466) the Visigothic Kingdom of Toulouse, named after its capital Toulouse, included the southern part of Gaul and a large portion of Spain.

Once in Spain, the Arian kings found the Catholic Church firmly established in the country. The Catholics enjoyed toleration until the reign of Euric. In fact, Catholics who fled from Africa found an asylum among the Visigoths and Euric's minister, Leo, was a Catholic.

The conflicts that later arose have been described by Gregory of Tours as bloody persecutions, but this is exaggerated. Euric was in general just towards his Catholic subjects. He did however, take steps against individual bishops and clerics who encouraged religious quarrels and were political opponents of the kingdom.

When King Clovis and his Frankish followers accepted Catholicism, Clovis undertook to drive the "heretics" out of Gaul. Many Catholic clergy made common cause with the Franks. As a result, Alaric II (485-507) took severe measures against them, but was not otherwise a persecutor of the Church. In 507, Alaric was defeated and slain by Clovis. Almost all of Visigothic Gaul now fell to the Franks, the last remnant during the reign of Amalaric (526-31).

The Visigoth seat of government was transferred to Spain where Toledo became the capital.

The ensuing era was fairly peaceful. The Catholics received unlimited tolerance, so that the Church constantly increased in strength while the Visigothic nation and kingdom grew steadily weaker. The nobility enthroned and deposed kings at pleasure; of thirty-five kings, seventeen were murdered or deposed. Arianism, isolated after the destruction of the Ostrogothic and Vandalic kingdoms, constantly declined. But it was revived during the reign of Leovigild (568-86).

His son, Hermenigild, revolted against him but was defeated and beheaded. Later narratives represent Hermenigild as a martyr for Catholicism, his wife, a Frankish princess, having converted him, but contemporary authorities say nothing of it.

Leovigild made a vain effort to win the Catholics by a conciliatory confession of faith drawn up by an Arian synod at Toledo. His son Reccared (586-601) became a Catholic and the Visigoths soon followed his example. With this began the amalgamation of Roman and German elements in Spain. In law and politics the Romans became Gothic; the Goths in social life and religion became Roman.

The Catholic Church was the national and established Church, while connection with Rome ceased almost entirely. The court of highest instance was the national council at Toledo. The king appointed the bishops and convoked the council. But the constant struggles of the royal house with the secular and spiritual aristocracy caused the downfall of the nation.

From the middle of the seventh century the Arabs (Moors) were masters of North Africa. A nomadic people from North Africa; the Moors were originally inhabitants of Mauretania.

They invaded Spain in 711A D, bringing their Islamic religion and culture. The period of Muslim sway is divided into three periods: the Emirate (711 to 756), the Caliphate (756-1031) and the Reinos de Taifas (small independent kingdoms) (1031 to 1492).

Forcing their way into Spain under Tarik. The Moors quickly defeated and overran the weaker Visigoths. Once King Roderick was defeated at Jerez de la Frontera, the Arabs spread northward across the Pyrenees into France. However, they were turned back by Charles Martel and his Frankish knights in 732.

At the beginning of the 8th century the Arabs entered from the south rapidly acquiring almost the whole of Spain. They conquered the country swiftly except for a small bulwark in the North. In southern Spain, the Moors established the Umayyad caliphate in Cordoba. The court grew wealthy, powerful, and its culture flourished. Other Spanish cities where Moorish culture flourished were Toledo, Granada, and Seville. However, the Moors were never able to establish a stable central government.

After their initial defeats the Christian Romans and Goths coalesced, forming the Spanish nation. Pushed to the north of Spain, their small kingdoms would become the initial springboard for the Reconquest. It was these who succeeded later in driving the Arabs out of the peninsula. But this would not be completed until eight centuries later.

During this period, Christian rulers continued efforts in northern Spain to recapture the south. In 1085, Alfonso VI of Leon and Castile recaptured Toledo.

As a result, in the 11th Century the caliphate fell. The then weakened Moorish Spain was captured by the Almoravids, who were supplanted in 1174 by the Almohads.

Later, Cordoba fell in 1236. One by one the Moorish strongholds surrendered. The last Moorish city, Granada, was captured by Ferindad V and Isabella I in 1492. Most Moors were driven from Spain. However, two groups, the Mudejares and Moriscos, remained.

Seven hundred years of Moorish influence left an unmistakable mark on Spain. The result is that Spain is markedly different even today from the rest of Western Europe. The Moors not only brought their religion, but also their music, art, their view of life, and their architecture. Two of the greatest examples of which are the Alhambra in Granada and the Escorial in Cordoba.

1094 El Cid

El Cid

( 1043-1099 )

Growing up in the household of the future King, Sancho II of Castile, El Cid was very close to Sancho. Prince Sancho was the eldest son of King Ferdinand I.

When the king died, he divided his kingdom among his five children. Sancho was given Castile, Alfonso was given Leon, Garcia was given Galicia, Urraca was given Zamora, and Elvira was given Toro.

When Prince Sancho became King Sancho II in 1065, he gave Rodrigo the highest position at court. Rodrigo became the Standard Bearer or Head of Royal Armies. King Sancho believed that the kingdom should remain united and Rodrigo stood by him. Urraca and the other siblings resisted uniting the kingdom.

King Sancho was assassinated in 1072. Soon after, the Castillians proclaimed Alfonso to be their king. This made Alfonso King of Castile as well as King of Leon.

El Cid accused Alfonso of taking part in the murder of his brother, Sancho. During a dispute, El Cid forced Alfonso swear that he had not taken any part in the assassination of Sancho. Accepting Alfonso's oath, the Cid remained in royal service and married Alfonso's neice, Jimena in 1074. Later, El Cid was sent to Sevilla as an ambassador. While there, he was accused of keeping money and treasures that were for King Alfonso. El Cid was then disinherited and exiled.

His first decade of exile was spent fighting for various Christian and Moslem rulers. However, he remained loyal to King Alfonso despite the King's refusal to forgive him.

In 1090 the Cid, with both the kings of Saragossa and Aragon, concentrated on resisting the advance of the Berber Almoravids in eastern Spain. During November of 1092, he began a siege of Valencia. By 1094, El Cid conquered the region of Valencia with his troops and offered Valencia to King Alfonso. Alfonso accepted his offer of Valencia and El Cid was made Lord of Valencia.

The Cid tried to maintain the Christian presence in the largely Moslem town, ruling there until his death on July 10,1099. His widow Jimena continued to rule, but in 1102 she was forced to abandon Valencia to the Almoravids.

To this day, Rodrigo Diaz de Vivar is known as a hero of Christian Spain. El Cid was also a great war hero due to his excellent achievements in the Reconquest of Spain. El Cid was a superior and extremely successful of fortune who apparently never lost a battle.

732: Muslim conquest halted by Charles Martel.

791 to 842: Alfonso II conquers a number of strongholds and settles the lands south of the river Duero.

873 to 898: Christian kingdom set up with a declaration of independence from the Frankish kings.

930 to 950: Ramiro II, king of Leon, defeats Abd al-Rahman III at Simancas, Osma and Talavera.

1035 to 1063: Fernando I conquers Coimbra and forces the Muslims of Toledo, Seville and Badajoz to pay him tribute. Before his death, he shares out his territories between his sons: Castile goes to Sancho II and Leon to Alfonso VI.

1065 to 1109: Alfonso VI unites the two kingdoms under his power and takes Toledo.

1086: The Christian advance makes the Muslim kings of Granada, Seville and Badajoz to call to their aid the Almoravides.

1118: Alfonso I of Aragon conquers Saragossa.

1135: Alfonso VII of Leon restores the prestige of the Leonese monarchy and is proclaimed emperor.

1151: The Almohades, another African dynasty who have displaced the Almoravides, retake Almaria.

1217 to 1252: Fernando III, king of Castile and Leon, conquers Cordova, Murcia, Jaen and Seville. Granada remains as the sole independent Muslim kingdom.

1252 to 1284: Alfonso X the Wise continues the reconquest and is forced to face the 'Mudejar' revolts of Andalusia and Murcia. He seeks election as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire in 1257.

1284: An assembly of nobles, prelates and citizens depose Alfonso X and hand over power to his son Sancho IV.

1309: Fernando IV takes Gibraltar.

1312 to 1350: Alfonso XI fights the kingdom of Granada for 25 years and in 1340 wins the battle of Rio Salado.

1369: Pedro I the Cruel is murdered in Montiel by his half brother Enrique de Trastamara, who then governs as Enrique II.

1385: The Portuguese defeat the Castilians in Aljubarrota.

1464: Enrique IV of Castile names as heir to the throne his sister, the future Isabel I, the Catholic, and disinherits his daughter Juana, nicknamed 'La Beltraneja'.

1469: Isabel I of Castile and Fernando II of Aragon are married, thus creating unity in Spain.

1492: The Catholic Monarchs, Isabel and Fernando, complete the Reconquest by taking Granada (January 2nd), taking advantage of the rivalry of the last Muslim governors of Spain. Discovery of America (October 12th).

1474 Isabella I Queen of Castile & Leon

In 1469, the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs, Isabella of Castile and Ferdinand of Aragon, prepared the way for the union of the two kingdoms. This marked the opening of a period of growing success for Spain. During their reign, Granada, the last stronghold of the Arabs in Spain, was conquered. At the same time, in the same historic year of 1492, the caravels sent by the Crown of Castile under the command of Christopher Columbus discovered America.

Later, the Canary Islands became part of Spanish territory (1495). The hegemony of Spain in the Mediterranean, to the detriment of France, was affirmed with the conquest of the Kingdom of Naples, and Navarre was incorporated into the Kingdom.